Notation:
[] - Conclusion _ - Subject/verb () – Details, embedded clause. 1. ALWAYS, ANALYZE THE ROLE OF EACH SENTENCE 2. READ SENTENCES WITHOUT MODIFIERS LOOK FOR EMBEDDED CLAUSES AND GRAMMAR CLUES IN A SENTENCE. 3. TRANSLATE MODIFIERS: Primarily = Most Often = Most Tend = Most 4. The Bucket Method. Think of different in terms of buckets in LR. Is All animals? Or all frogs? Think of the bigger buckets and try to establish the smaller ones and address this issue in the answer choices. 5. In Logic Games, stop guessing about designing the sketch. The stimulus is very specific as to eliminate unnecessary guessing. 6. Always notate conclusion in square brackets. 7. In Principle Questions, try to break down the argument into parts and check against the questions asked. Key to Inference Questions: Which one of the following can properly be inferred form the passage? 1. Right answers are either paraphrase of the existing premise/fact in the stimulus, or a combination of premises/facts (2 and/or more) from the stimulus. 2. Check with the Fact Test: All Right Answers must pass the Fact Test, i.e., proved from the stimulus. 3. Right answers are not likely to predict. 4. Right answers have a range of provability. 5. Get to the Right Answer by Eliminating the Wrong Answers. Incorrect Answers: 1. Extreme. Watch out modifiers. 2. Shell Game. Looks attractive but changed enough not to be true. 3. Out of scope. New Info. 4. Reversal. Key to Principle Example Questions Which one of the following conforms most closely to the principle illustrated above? 1. No need to evaluate the logics. 2. Need to conform to a given principle. 3. Conform to the conditions: most likely, to conditional form. 4. Generate principle if the principle is in the form of an argument (with a premise and a conclusion). Key to Principle Support Questions Which one of the following principles, of valid, most help to justify the political theorist’s reasoning? 1. Assumption questions. Similar to Strengthen questions. 2. Follow the pattern: - What is my task? - What is the author’s conclusion? - How is the conclusion supported? - What is the gap? - Which answer choices are clearly wrong? - What is the best available answer Key to Strengthen/Weaken Questions I. Weaken: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? II. Strengthen: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously strengthens the argument? 1. Must address gaps in the core 2. Attack the assumptions 3. Look for alternatives, or Elimination of the Alternatives. 4. Try to predict. 5. Be flexible. Beware of arguments without cores, and claims within premises. 6. Eliminate the answers that do not relate to the core, or have indeterminate relationship to the core. 7. Beware of EXCEPT Questions. The opposite effect of EXCEPT questions. Incorrect Answers: 1. Opposite. 2. Shell Game. 3. Out of scope Weaken Questions: 1. The stimulus contains the argument. 2. Focus on the conclusion. 3. The information the stimulus is suspect. Often, reasoning errors. Must read the argument very carefully. 5. Strong prephrases. Predict. Attack is based on: 1. Incomplete information. 2. Improper comparison. 3. Qualified conclusion. To weaken a conditional conclusion, attack the necessary condition by showing that the necessary condition does not need to occur in order for the sufficient to occur. Strengthen: 1. Identify the conclusion. 2. Personalize the argument. 3. Look for weaknesses or holes in the argument. Strengthen is based on: A. Eliminate any alternative causes for the stated effect. B. Show that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs. C. Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur. D. Eliminate the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed. E. Show that the data used to make the causal relationship is accurate, or eliminate possible problems with the data. Key to Flaw Questions The politician’s reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that... 1. Assumption Questions 2. Follow the pattern: - What is my task? - What is the author’s conclusion? - How is the conclusion supported? - What is the gap? - Which answer choices are clearly wrong? - What is the best available answer EXPLORE THE FALLACIES!!! A. Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept B. Source Argument C. Circular Reasoning D. Errors of Conditional Reasoning: a. Confuses a necessary condition for a sufficient condition b. Confuses a sufficient condition for a necessary condition E. Mistaken Cause and Effect F. Straw Men G. General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion H. Internal Contradiction I. Appeal Fallacies J. Survey Errors K. Exceptional case/Overgeneralization L. Errors of Composition and Division M. False Analogy N. False dilemma O. Errors in the use of evidence P. Time Shift Errors Q. Numbers and Percentages Errors Key to Assumption Question The argument requires (necessary) the assumption of which one of the following? The conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed (sufficient)? 1. Either sufficient or necessary. Know the subtleties. 2. Utilize the negation test for Necessary. 3. Assumption Questions. Follow the pattern: - What is my task? - What is the author’s conclusion? - How is the conclusion supported? - What is the gap? - Which answer choices are clearly wrong? - What is the best available answer Incorrect Answers: 1. Premise Boosters 2. Conclusion Redundancy 3. Opposites 4. Out of scope 5. Reversed Logic Incorrect answers in Necessary Assumptions: 1. Could be true or Likely to Be True 2. Exaggerated Answers 3. New Information. Out of scope 4. The Shell Game 5. The Opposite 6. The Reverse Key to Parallel (Matching) Questions Which of the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above? Match the Reasoning: 1. Match the components of the argument. 2. Order does not matter. 3. Watch out for modifiers. Match the Flaw: 1. Find the flaw first. 2. Learn from the wrong answers. Key to Paradox Questions Which one of the following, if true, helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? 1. Expected Result vs. Unexpected Result. 2. Three Answer Buckets: a. Expected Result. b. Unexpected c. Irrelevant to the argument. Stimuli: 1. No conclusion. 2. Language of contradiction. Key to Role of Statement Identify the Conclusion. Which one of the following sentences most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? 1. Always identify the conclusion first! 2. Stuck in the middle 3. The author’s conclusion, NOT mine 4. Last in the chain of logic 5. Do not be tricked by rewording of the conclusion Determine the function The claim that ambiguity inspires interpretation figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? 1. Identify the conclusion first 2. Keep the sides straight 3. You can use only the information in the stimulus to prove the correct answer choice. FACT TEST. 4. Any answer choice that describes the information or a situation that does not occur in the stimulus is incorrect. Incorrect answer choices: 1. “New” Element Answers 2. Half Right, Half Wrong Answer Choices 3. Exaggerated Answers 4. The Opposite Answers 5. The Reverse Answers Identify the Disagreement Raphaela and Edward disagree about the truth of which one of the following? 1. Do not infer 2. Identify the overlap 3. Anticipate the point of disagreement Procedure The drilling proponent’s reply to the drilling opponent proceeds by 1. Know your argument components and how they work to form an argument.
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AuthorVitali Kremez Archives
October 2015
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